THE QUALITY OF EMORY'S NATURAL ENVIRONMENT A STUDY OF THE EMORY UNIVERSITY CAMPUS WITH RESPECT TO ITS SOILS, VEGETATION, WATER, AND AIR N. Gary Bumgarner Greg J. Piacente Gail Kristas Sharron E. Rogers Carol E. Macklin A. James Ruttenbur Paul N. Orser Albert L. Tate Prof. Robert B. Platt ["Bob Platt passed away in 1998 at the age of 85. He had been one of Emory's most admired and successful faculty members as well as a true pioneer in the early stages of the environmental movement in Georgia and the southeast." -- Prof. Don Shure, 1/18/01] October 1970 CONTENTS Part I Introduction   Principal findings and recommendations   Soils   Vegetation   Water   Air   Significance of this study to the Comprehensive Master Plan   What the Natural Environment means to Emory   A Comprehensive Master Plan for a Quality Natural Environment   Acknowledgements Part II The Four Studies   Soils   Vegetation   Water   Air

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INTRODUCTION

This revolutionary departure from well established classroom protocol would have the advantage of providing students with a practical approach to today's environmental problems, but of course would not have the highly disciplined approach to a body of knowledge characteristic of most courses. However, as a graduate course it could build on a strong undergraduate base of ecological training.

While mulling over a number of choices during the winter months for the basic problem, the environment of our own campus kept coming to the forefront. In February Vice President Myers asked me if I would serve on a sub-committee of the Campus Development Committee to look into the environmental problems of the campus. This decided the issue.. and both the Campus Development Committee and the subcommittee have provided their full support.

The class consisted of 4 graduate students and 4 college honor students. After a brief survey of the problem they formed themselves into teams, each with a graduate and undergraduate member, and divided the study into the four components of the natural environment: soil, vegetation, water, and air. By good luck these were the 4 areas in which the graduate students were especially interested.

Each team quickly took the initiative in planning their work and searching out and contacting those people and agencies on the campus and in the Metropolitan Area whose cooperation and help they needed. Planning and information exchange sessions were held each week. Their reports were completed by the first of June.

As an educational venture all considered it a success. The best feature from the students point of view was that it provided an opportunity not only for independent study at an advanced level, but especially that it brought them into contact with practical problems and procedures which they would encounter in their professional careers.

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The results of the study turned out to be substantive enough to warrant consideration of University officials. The study obviously has many limitations, primarily due to the short time of 10 weeks during the spring quarter for its execution. The qualitative aspects are reasonably solid, and although the quantitative data are necessarily brief, they do have the added strength of a good correlation in their principle findings. Thus, it must be considered a pilot study which defines certain basic problems and now needs more extensive work to firmly develop their boundaries and magnitudes. Of particular urgency is the problem of solid waste disposal, which this study highlights but does not face directly.

As an introduction to the study, I have prepared a summary of the principle findings and recommendations, made an evaluation of the study with respect to the Comprehensive Campus Master Plan, set forth the reasons for a quality environment, and made some practical suggestions on how an environmental quality plan for the campus may be developed.

Robert B. Platt
Department of Biology

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PRINCIPLE FINDINGS & RECOMMENDATIONS

The primary conclusion drawn from this study is that the quality of the Emory University environment has significantly deteriorated over the past 20 years with respect to its soils, vegetation, water, and air. Under existing attitudes and management practices the present rates of deterioration are accelerating to the extent that not only will most of the irreplaceable natural assets of the more widely used parts of the campus largely disappear within the next 10 to 20 years, but also that much of the quality associated with the life of the University community will be increasingly impoverished.

This is initially difficult to understand by those whose love and concern for the campus have prompted them to develop through past years what has seemed to be an adequate plan for campus care. However, the facts established by this study show.that current management plans and practices are not enough to maintain the present quality and that the long range plans are not adequate to even check the deterioration, much less reestablish some reasonable level of quality with which we would like to live.

The study is of sufficient depth and scope to designate the general levels of conditions and the rates at which these conditions are deteriorating. Obviously a study of this kind will have errors, weak areas, and omissions, and some of its value judgements will be open to question. As the report is studied, these should be rooted out and defined. There will be bright areas where real accomplishments are being made which are not mentioned in the report and these likewise are to be put into perspective. Yet, we do not believe that such errors will alter basically the primary conclusions. At the very least, the findings warrant an intensive study by the University of the quality of its natural environment, this being an area which, though frequently referred to, was given a decidedly subordinate position in the Comprehensive Campus Master Plan.

Soils

Findings

The nature and quality of the soils were examined by means of (1) a soil analysis and map, prepared by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, (2) sub-surface examination by means of 11 soil pits dug at strategic points over the campus, (3) by appropriate laboratory analyses, and (4) by the use of other qualitative criteria. The Soils fall into two categories, natural and urban. The latter occurs on sites disturbed by construction-and grading. Of the North Campus (north of the railroad and east of Clifton Rd.), 23.2% is urban soil, while on the South Campus 73.9% is covered by urban or disturbed soils. The other parts of the Campus have natural soils.

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With the exception of floodplains, the natural soils are residual, in that they are derived in situ from the underlying bedrock of modified granite, composed primarily of biotite, quartz and feldspar. These residual soils are red and yellow podzols, fairly acid, low in lime content, low in soluble salts, and low in fertility. They range from low to high in their water holding capacity and have moderate infiltration. Runoff is moderate to rapid on slopes of 10 to 15 degree percent or greater, and thus all present severe hazards for erosion when unprotected by a vegetative cover or by a horizon of leaves and leaf mold.

In those relative few areas of the Campus where little use is made of the land, as for example the slopes across Peachtree Creek from Yerkes Primate Center., the soils are in excellent condition. However, in all areas where there is even moderate use and disturbance, as around Lullwater Lake and over most of the South Campus, there is a measurable deterioration. This is continuing at varying rates and is shown by (1) increased compaction, (2) loss of waterholding capacity, (3) infiltration of surface materials into the lower horizons (4) changes in surface vegetation and (5) sheet erosion ranging from moderate to severe. Easily visible evidences of sheet erosion are the muddy rivulets and streams during rainstorms and the high rate of siltation of Lullwater Lake.

The urban soils for the most part vary from poor to fair. Those examined were variously characterized as "biologically dead", structureless, highly erratic in pH, seriously compacted, contained mortar and building materials, subject to severe erosion, development of hardpan, and low quality vegetative cover. Some of the poor quality areas are: the level area south of Lullwater Lake, the Quadrangle, newly grassed areas adjacent to the Woodruff Research Library, the area between Alabama Hall and the Alumni Memorial Building, and areas where facilities have been placed underground. Although none of the urban soils examined were of good or top quality, most of the sampling was done where the surface appearance was also of poor quality. (shrubbery zones and athletic fields were not included in the study.) A primary feature of urban soils is that their quality is a direct result of preparation and management practices.

Recommendations

Some of the tangible factors responsible for the low quality soil conditions are inadequate budgets, difficulties of traffic controls, both foot and vehicular, and adverse construction practices. Another, but less tangible one, could be an inadequate recognition of the problem.

The high cost of putting an urban soil into first-class condition is well known to anyone who has had the experience of establishing and maintaining a home yard. It may be impractical for Emory to put all of its urban soils into good quality over a short time, not only because of the high cost but also because the areas which most need such attention are very difficult to manage. However, certain minimum procedures can be instituted.

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(1) Take the necessary steps, including severe financial strictures, to force contractors to protect natural soils where construction does not absolutely necessitate a disturbance, and to adequately prepare those soils which must be disturbed. To put this in perspective, the contractor for the Woodruff Research Library caused much damage that could have been avoided. Thus a radical change in attitude and procedure with reference to this aspect of new construction is strongly indicated. More oil this appears in the section on Vegetation.

(2) Much greater care should be used in trenching for underground services, including handling of the soil when being removed from the trench, as well as its replacement, and rebuilding of the surface parts.

(3) An increased attention to foot traffic control, and stringent regulations on the use of motor bikes, especially on the Lullwater Estate.

(4) the development of long range programs for soil improvement, whereby for each of several successive years various parts of the urban soil complex may be improved.

(5) A thorough examination of those substantial areas of residual soils and unpaved roads which are now subject to sheet erosion, and the initiation of a long range program of improvement. This is especially important for the Lullwater Lake watersheds. A more specific series of recommendations for this part of the campus appear in the section on Water.

VEGETATION

Findings

This study has attempted to determine the quality of the vegetation on the Emory campus, to inventory what might be considered natural and that which has been disturbed, and to determine the directions and rates of man's influence and activities on this vegetation. A comprehensive vegetation map of the campus was developed, and its nature and quality evaluated by means of data obtained from 9 experimental stations. These data included an analysis of the vegetation by diversity, density, frequency and dominance, and some correlation of these with soil conditions. Six of the stations were in forests, two were in locations subject to high density pedestrial traffic, and one was in an area of drastic vegetation change. (The Woodruff Library)

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Conditions of the natural vegetation range from excellent to poor. Some of the forests on the Lullwater Estate represent near-primeval conditions, and are among the best that can be found in the region. within the past few years, there has been some deterioration, this being closely correlated with the extent to which each part is available for public use.

Most of the natural vegetation on the South Campus has been removed, and much of that remaining is being seriously abused. Thus, deterioration here is proceeding at rates such that under current management plans and practices, very little will be left within another 10 to 20 years. Among the evidences for this are erosion and compaction of the soil, removal of young trees and shrubs, extensive invasion of the forest floors by weedy vines, and by the death each year of an appreciable number of mature trees.

Of particular significance with regard to new construction is the condition of the vegetation around the new Woodruff Library. Of the 65 trees remaining in the area affected by construction, 6 are dead, and it was estimated that 25 are dying, 15 are sick and only 19 still appear in a healthy condition. This does not include a number which died during or shortly after completion of the Library and which have been removed. This is in sharp contrast to the presumption that prior to construction these trees would remain in a healthy condition as part of the library environment.

The South Campus gives the distinct impression to the casual observer that it is indeed characterized by a beautiful but often sparse tree canopy. However, many of these trees are pines and the hardwoods are few and widely scattered. Although the "original" hardwood trees were not counted, it seems to be common knowledge that every year a number of these die, and little attention is being given to the maintenance of those remaining.

The natural areas on the campus have not been made inviting and attractive to students, faculty, and other members of our community. Well developed paths and meditation areas do not exist anywhere in the forested areas, with the exception of the wildflower trail on the Candler Estate. While forests in good condition are difficult to traverse, those on the South Campus are almost impossible to enter because of the dense groundcover of weedy vines.

Some examples on the credit side, which are restricted primarily to landscaped areas, are the plantings of native hardwood trees on the quadrangle, the use of dogwoods and redbuds along some streets, the preservation of the "Calhoun Oak" and the excellent collection of Hollies. A special note of appreciation is always due to the Grounds and Horticulture Department, which keeps the landscaped parts of the campus in better condition than their budget would indicate is possible. Although these areas were not part of this study, they do highlight the relatively high costs of maintaining man-managed areas in contrast to the very low or zero costs of maintaining natural areas, which by their nature are self-regulating and self-perpetuating.

A note may be added regarding the very rich native flora and

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fauna of the region. Emory University is located in the transition zone between the foothills of the southern Appalachian Mountains and the upper Piedmont Plateau- The southern Appalachian region has the greatest diversity of plant and animal life of any area in this hemisphere and is rivaled in the world only by comparable areas in southeastern Asia. This is due not only to its particularly favorable climate, but also that the area has not been subject to drastic geologic change for the past 200 million years, and thus has been constantly available for plant and animal colonization and evolution.

Recommendations

(1) An inventory should be made of the existing natural vegetation including each mature tree on the landscaped areas.

(2) A long range program of maintenance and/or restoration of the natural vegetation should be established.

(3) Adequate and inviting means of access to natural areas by the community, consistent with good management practices, should be developed.

(4) Radical changes in construction procedures should be instituted, which would involve the following:

a. The identification prior to construction of those aspects of the natural environment which are to be left untouched.

b. Positive provisions for their protection.

c. The posting of a bond by the construction company, which would place a high punitive cost an each part of the environment which they damage or destroy.

WATER

Findings

Six streams were surveyed as a means of gaining an estimate of the present quality of the water on the Emory University Campus. Three of these, designated the Woodruff-Cox Hall Stream, the Hospital-Library Stream and the Physical Plant Stream, are located on heavily used parts of the campus. Two others, Lullwater Stream I, and Lullwater Stream II are located on the Lullwater Biology Research Area in that part of the campus having minimum human use, while the 6th, Peavine Creek is one of the two major creeks passing by the campus. They all originate either on the cam-pus or in the case of the Phy-

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sical Plant Stream on the adjacent CDC property.

Two primary methods were employed. The first was a qualitative estimate based on (1) evidence of urbanization in the form of discarded trash and debris, (2) stream flowrate, (3) stream bottom description, (4) water color, (5) obvious odor, (6) water temperature, and (7) the existence and diversity of life. The second method was a quantitative measure including determinations of dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, phosphate, nitrate, ammonia and chromate content, and total coloform and fecal coloform bacterial counts. The study was carried out in cooperation with the Georgia Water Quality Control Board.

The three streams in the central part of the campus were of very low quality. The Woodruff-Cox Hall Stream was devoid of any macroinvertebrate life forms, the water was discolored and had a chemical odor, the temperature was elevated, and the bottom sediments included discarded mortar, metal cans and glass bottles. The water on the day sampled contained significantly adverse amounts of phosphates, chromium, and other ions. The absence of life forms is probably the direct result of the introduction of biocides, employed specifically as algicides, fungicides and bacteriacides in the treatment and protective maintenance of the cooling tower located above the stream and under the bridge at Cox Hall. This stream has been largely covered over by grading and building, so that it now is visible only for about 300 feet back of the Geology Building.

The Hospital-Library Stream, which arises from a spring near the Uppergate House, is seriously contaminated at periodic or intermittent periods. At times it is a chalky white color with some odor. Only one macroinvertebrate life form was found after an extensive search. However, at the time of sampling, the water itself was of reasonable quality. the stream bed has been badly treated, especially as a result of the construction of the Woodruff Library and lack of maintenance below this point. Its upper half above the Library has been covered by construction.

The Physical Plant Stream is grossly contaminated, receiving wastes from the CDC area, which are evident as the stream emerges on the Emory University side from under the railroad, and from the Physical Plant, the crematorium, and the incinerator. It is usually of foul odor, murky and discolored. No life forms are evident. Large amounts of debris line its banks and stream bed. The bottom is covered with a detritus-like film.

Three stations were investigated along Peavine Creek as it flows along the western border of the campus. The first is at the bridge on North Decatur Road, the second immediately below the outlet of the Physical Plant Stream and the Emory dump, and the third, a hundred Yards downstream from Station 2. The creek is variously polluted, probably at many points from its source in Decatur. Along the University stretch, slime covers many of the bottom rocks. At the time the water was sampled, the pollution was moderate and characteristic of the larger streams of Atlanta. The unusually low number of life forms indicate the introduction of biocides at various times. There is a marked deterioration of the stream as it nears the lower end of the

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campus, Primarily due to the introduction of waste materials from Emory operations. For several hundred feet below Fraternity Row, Emory has used the flood plain extensively for land fill and solid waste disposal. Much of this has found its way to the banks and into the stream. From the standpoint of water quality, the total coloform and fecal coloform counts were identical at the station just below the mouth of the Physical Plant Stream, indicating a potentially serious pollution problem.

In sharp contrast, the two small streams within the Biology Field Laboratory were of excellent quality. There was a marked reduction over that of the other streams in alkalinity, specific conductance, phosphate, and nitrate. The high diversity of macroinvertebrates and vertebrates, associated-with undisturbed natural areas was established. These undoubtedly account for the high coloform counts while correspondingly, the fecal coloform counts were very low.

Ecologically, these two streams reflect stable self-sustaining aquatic ecosystems. An interesting commentary is that there is a marked decrease in water pollution with increasing distance from the Woodruff-Cox Hall Complex. Thus, the water quality increases as one proceeds away from the central campus. Stated another way, this is an indication of the degree of urbanization.

On the north campus, pollution is indicated primarily by the deposition of erosional sediments from the adjacent watersheds into Lullwater Lake. However, there have been documented cases in recent years in which there has been severe chemical pollution from waste materials dumped into the streams which feed the Lake. Thus, as a direct result of construction work and poor surface soil and road management within its watershed, severe soil erosion has occurred and is occurring at both the western and eastern portions of the Lake. This erosion is particularly evident by the resultant extensive deltas which have formed over the years, the persistent turbidity of the water, and the sedimentation on the Lake bottom. Furthermore, periodic overflowing of the south fork of Peachtree Creek deposits considerable amounts of sand and eroded soil into the Lake basin. Prior studies by the Biology Department have shown varying degrees of pollution and eutrofication.

Lullwater Lake was constructed in 1952 by diverting the south fork of the Peachtree Creek into its present path, and by dredging the formerly existing stream basin. There are 5 inlets into Lullwater Lake. Two of these are persistent spring-fed streams, two are intermittent inlets which drain surrounding forests and campus, and one comes from the Biological Research Pond.

This pilot study provides an overall approximation of the water quality on the campus. The qualitative observations provide a judgement which is not easily contested. The quantitative data, however, are very limited. The study clearly shows that the kinds and sources of pollutants are largely unknown, since the kinds of records which would indicate this have not been a customary part of the engineering and construction design for the building complexes.

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Recommendations

(1) The primary recommendation is that Emory undertake a two-pronged study. One is a water quality study of the streams as a means of determining what pollutants are being introduced. The other would be a comprehensive search for these pollutants and their sources, primarily through the various hospital complexes, the various air conditioning units, the food preparation center, the crematorium, the Physical Plant, and new construction.

(Z) Development of a program of pollution control directed at clearing up the streams, and restoring them to a reasonable condition not only for esthetics and sanitation, but as a responsible measure in curtailing Emory's substantial contribution to the pollution of Peavine Creek.

The Hospital-Library Stream occupies an important position in the heart of the campus and efforts should be made to utilize this as a focal point of beauty and good taste.

(3) Water pollution on the north campus can be controlled, particularly with reference to Lullwater Lake. The following steps are recommended to put this Lake into a condition of high quality and beauty.

a. Curtailment of sheet erosion from surrounding areas, as discussed in the section on soils.

b. Adequate surface water management of adjacent dirt roads.

c. Positive insistence that erosional sediments from adjacent private property be stopped.

d. Positive steps to prevent intermittent pollution from chemical wastes which are introduced into the watersheds and streams from both University owned and adjacent property, for example, from the University Apartments and from the areas as far away as the Graduate Dorm and Egleston Hospital.

e. Extension of these controls to the upper watershed around the Graduate Residence Hall.

f. Prevention of the periodic overflow into the Lake by Peachtree Creek during floods, by removal of the dam on Peachtree Creek.

g. Possible limitations on the numbers of ducks and geese because of the effects of their wastes on over-enrichment of the water.

AIR

Findings

This study was designed to produce a conceptual picture of the quality of the air environment on the Emory Campus and within the Emory area. Thus, it must be considered a pilot study. It consists of three parts: (A) meteorological conditions on the campus, (B) air pollution on the campus, and (C) an air pollution emissions survey of the Emory area

All experimental data for the campus were collected at five stations, chosen to represent a gradient from maximum to minimum disturbance by man. Station #1 is at the micrometeorological tower in the climax forest adjacent to the Biology Research Pond. Station #2 is at the micrometeorological tower located in the open flood plain at the lower end of Lullwater Lake. Station #3 is on the Quadrangle, and represents a maintained open area surrounded by buildings and subject to high density pedestrian traffic. Station #4 is on Dantzler Drive at the southeast corner of the Communicable Disease Center, and is approximately centered among the Emory Physical Plant, the pathological incinerator, and the CDC smokestack. It is subject to twice daily peak hour traffic flow. Station #5 is located beside Clifton Road between the old Post Office and Egleston Children's Hospital. This is one of the most urbanized areas on the campus, being surrounded by numerous buildings, parking facilities, heavy traffic flow and little vegetation. Furthermore, it is close to the hospital facilities, where air pollution may be of greater significance.

Most of the data were collected on typical sunny days with little air flow, and also at times when there was no appreciable air inversion.

Atlanta's generally favorable climate does produce prolonged periods of stagnant air conditions, with consequent temperature inversions which tend to place a "lid" on the atmosphere during the morning hours, this generally disappearing in the early afternoon. Stagnation periods are more than twice as likely in the Atlanta area as in cities such as Baltimore, New York, or Boston. During 1969 Atlanta logged a total of 357 hours of large-scale inversions by the Weather Bureau, most of which lasted 24 hours, but two lasted for 5 days.

Temperature and humidity profiles were obtained continuously for several typical days at all stations. These data were ultimately translated into an air comfort index, which showed a marked gradient across the. 5 stations. Between 8:00 A.M. and 6: 00 P.M. on one continuously sampled representative day., the number of hours of non-desirable climate conditions ranged from.approximately 1 in the forest to 3 in the field and 6 to 7 in the more urbanized areas. This reflects, of course, the difference between the ameliorating effects of vegetation on man's microenvironment, in contrast to the harshness brought about by buildings and paved areas.

Atmospheric levels of selected pollutants - particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide - were sampled

at the 5 stations on calm spring days during the months of April and May. In every case there was a very marked gradient across the 5 stations. They also reflect a relatively high build-up of contaminants in localized areas near their sources. For example, for a 24 hour sample period, the average concentration (expressed in micrograms per cubic meter) for particulates ranged from 42 in the forest to 102 on Clifton Road, while for N02 from 34.30 to 71.62 and SO from 0.00 to 3.68. The carbon monoxide concentration in ppm ranged from 10 to 110, depending on time of day and traffic density. While these data are extremely limited, they do suggest that concentrations on the Emory Campus are high enough to affect human health. For example, the First Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality, transmitted to the Congress August, 1970, states that exposure to 10 ppm of carbon monoxide for approximately 8 hours may dull mental performance. It also points out that such levels are common in cities, with heavy traffic increasing it to 70, 80, or 100 ppm for short periods. The report cites a Buffalo study, which suggests that an average annual particulate concentration ranging from 80 to 100 micrograms per cubic meter increases the overall death rate, and that particulate levels in this range are found in most major urban areas. These figures are quoted only for the purpose of indicating that the Emory Campus does have an air pollution problem approximating that of urban areas. We cannot, therefore, take solace in believing that within the central campus we enjoy the relatively cleaner air of suburbia.

The relatively clean air within the forest and open field, in contrast to relatively high levels of pollution in the heart of the campus, indicates that Emory's primary sources of air pollution for these days were generated within the campus area. This suggests that Emory is primarily responsible for its own air pollution.

As a means of determining in a more explicit way the air pollution over the Emory Campus, an air pollution emissions survey was made within the immediate Emory area. This was done in accordance with procedures used by state and federal agencies.

A survey of automotive emissions was accomplished by first estimating traffic in the study area, and then utilizing the accepted factors for average speed and pollution emission. Autos in the Emory area consume an estimated 3,535,000 gallons of gasoline per year. This is converted into 5,000 tons of carbon monoxide, 380 tons of hydrocarbons, 270 tons of nitrogen dioxide, and 25 tons of particulate matter, plus some aldehydes, sulfur dioxide and organic acids. About 57% of this pollution is released along the border of the study area on the arterial routes. Thirty percent is released in the campus area, a substantial portion being along Clifton Road. Although the amount of particulate matter is a small portion of the total tonnage, it is important because of it being the principle source of smog.

Pollution from natural gas was estimated by determining the quantity Of natural gas used in the study area and then applying standard emission factors. The Emory area consumes over a billion cubic feet of natural gas annually. One of the cleanest of fuels, natural gas Produces only a small amount of pollution. However, because of the enormous amount of gas consumed, 35% of the nitrogen dioxide and 15% of the particulate-matter emitted in the study area comes from this

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source. The overall seasonal fluctuation is low due to the various ways which the gas is used for power production and residential heating and cooling.

The amount of fuel oil used.in the area was determined by a review of purchase records at each fuel oil facility. This is the major source of sulfur dioxide pollution, releasing about 120 tons annually. However, this occurs only in the cold season. Although Emory facilities and Wesley Voods consume the majority of fuel oil used in the areas, only 8% of the sulfur dioxide is attributed to these sources. Ninety-two percent of this comes from residual fuel oil burned at CDC and the Veteran's Hospital.

Pollution from incineration comes from 6 incinerators in the Emory area: two at the Veteran's Hospital, one at CDC, one at Yerkes Primate Center, one at Wesley Woods and one at Emory Physical Plant. Four of these incinerate pathological material including litter shavings, animals, and animal wastes, and two are used mainly to incinerate refuse. Since records of incinerated materials are not kept for most of the incinerators, specific figures are difficult to establish. However, the Emory area does have an unusually high concentration of such materials, and very few controls apparently exist for the consequent emissions. A rough computation snows that over 2,000 tons of material are burned annually, this contributing an estimated 12 tons of particulate matter into the atmosphere or 20% of the total for the area. In addition, noxious odors from these sources frequently occur in the eastern part of the study area.

The evaporation of dry cleaning solvents and gasoline contributes a sizeable quantity of organic chemicals into the atmosphere annually. An estimated 53,800 gallons of gasoline are evaporated per year along with 11,500 gallons of dry cleaning solvents.

In summary, apparently most of the air pollution on the Emory Campus originates from the campus itself and the immediate surrounding area. More than half of this comes from automobiles, while the balance is about evenly divided between natural gas, fuel oil, and incinerators. There is a marked gradient of concentrations from the more urbanized to the more natural areas of the campus.

Recommendations

The University should conduct its own study with respect to the sources and extent of air pollution and then take vigorous moves to correct whatever adverse conditions are established. Some specific suggestions which emerge from this pilot study follow.

The use of autos on the Emory Campus could be effectively reduced by speeding up the time table called for in the Master Plan for the establishment of a truly pedestrian campus. The use of bicycles can be encouraged now by providing special parking facilities and bicycle paths across the campus. The recent trend to continually increase the parking spaces on the campus could be reversed with a more positive search for peripheral parking areas. Where parking is necessary, natural buffers of trees and shrub, could be placed around and within

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these areas so as to ameliorate the dispersion of certain kinds of pollutants and improve the comfort index.

A study of the concentrations of air pollution in the clinic and hospital areas should be undertaken to see how this affects the quality of their environment both within and without the buildings.

It may be possible to greatly reduce the present congestion on Clifton Road, particularly at the Houston Mill and Haygood Drive intersections. One suggestion is to establish one-way traffic flow along Clifton Road during the peak hours.

Because of the large contribution to air pollution from adjacent arterial routes, Emory should consider taking a positive stand to discourage any additional arterial traffic for the area, as for example, the proposed Expressway across the western end of the campus and adjacent to the Veteran's Hospital.

Emory should set standards of emission on the point sources which are regulated by Emory such as the Physical Plant, Yerkes, and it crematoriums and incinerators. These should be as close as possible to the minimum obtainable by present pollution technology.

The incinerators should be required to accurately measure the quantity of material burned. Provisions could be made to shut down all unnecessary point source emittors during high pollution potential days. Emory, after providing a model regulation, could encourage adjacent facilities to better control their own emissions.

Finally, since vegetation filters certain kinds of pollution, reduces the synergistic effects by reducing smog producing photochemical reactions, and creates a more favorable microclimate environment, the whole problem of adequate control of air pollution lends substantial support to the recommended program for campus vegetation.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS STUDY TO THE COMPREHENSIVE CAMPUS MASTER PLAN

This study has been evaluated continuously throughout its development with the Comprehensive Campus Master Plan, recently accepted by the University. This study shares the same fundamental assumption basic to the Master Plan, i.e. that the University wants a top quality environment for its occupants. Whereas the Master Plan must be concerned with the entire and almost incredibly complex University community structure, this study has been directed at but one aspect, the quality of the natural environment. This happens to be, however, the one aspect of campus quality which the Master Plan does not face up to, except in a subordinate manner.

Our environmental problems are, in part, the direct result of carrying forward through the past fifty years a series of attitudes and concepts which assume that the natural resources of the Campus are expendable, since they have seemed to be inexhaustible, and that they can be variously utilized, altered, or destroyed without serious adverse effects on the quality of the campus environment. The Master Plan perpetuates and further entrenches this concept. One indication of this is the frequently repeated "key note" statement in the Plan that "Much of the charm of the Emory Campus is due to its beautiful natural setting among streams, lakes, wooded hills and ravines. A major planning policy is to maintain as much of this natural beauty as is consistent with the expansion program." The philosophical concept inherent in this statement and in. its implementation throughout the Master Plan is,, however, in conflict with the philosophical concept and implementation called for in this particular study. This study therefore presents a series of value judgements which were not available when the Master Plan was made.

These judgements may be drawn from the three basic elements of the "key-note" statement. One is that the campus has a beautiful natural setting among streams, lakes, wooded hills and ravines. This study shows that its natural setting is not as beautiful as most people want to believe. Its streams and lakes are for the most part ugly and polluted through long years of abuse and neglect, its two central ravines have been largely filled and covered, its original tree canopy over the most used parts of. the campus has been drastically altered, its irreplaceable trees of venerable age and great beauty are disappearing at an alarming rate, and the campus is highly urbanized in its central part, since Emory is one of the major traffic generators in metropolitan Atlanta, and the state's second largest employer. The second value-judgement is found in the designation of the natural environment as the "charm" of the campus.. Despite semantic difficulties nowhere throughout the report does a stronger phrase appear such as "an asset", "an irreplaceable asset", or "a priceless heritage." The third judgement is found in the statement that "as much of this natural beauty wi1l be main tained as is consistent with the expansion program." Throughout the Plan, the natural assets are almost always put into a subordinate position to other needs so that by the time Plan is completed, very little is left. Even though natural areas green open spaces are shown throughout, the meticulous planning

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and importance given to other aspects, such as landscaping, art, and campus graphics, have not been extended to the natural resources of the campus.

These points are documented as follows. On page 26 in the section Emory Today, the campus is described as having the character of "rolling wooded hills with some very steep slopes and deep ravines," and for the southwest section of greatest building concentration the "deep ravines and steep hillsides are, in.general, undeveloped and are heavily wooded. Flat topped ridges and gentle slopes are occupied by University buildings set into ornamental open spaces and playing fields." This greatly exaggerated statement gives way to a more tempered one on page 53 where "In summary the south campus may be described as composed of medium-size white buildings with red tile roofs in a green foliated park." The relative paucity of major tree groups for the south Campus are shown facing page 55. These tree groups plus the open spaces shown on page 28 for the south campus have largely disappeared in the proposed land-use plan shown on page 74. In the section on Future Land Use, the only references to the natural environment are on page 76 where the "key-note" statement is again repeated plus the statement that "Candler Lake is to be kept in its natural state in a large green area, and smaller wedges and linear greenways will be threaded through and between other land uses." The next reference is in point 4 of the Design Plan, page 98, in which the objective is again stated to "Preserve the general image of Emory Campus as modest-sized buildings in a green setting." However, these objectives, for the most part, are not developed. On the opposite page, the visual conception shows trees planted in neat rows and clumps around an awesome labyrinth of buildings and walks, while the natural areas have disappeared. On the next page, 5 natural green spaces do appear on the south campus sketch but, with one exception, are more imaginary than real. The largest is along the length of Peavine Creek, which at present possesses little original vegetation, and for the most part is bordered by the shopping center, houses, apartments, power sub-stations, parking lots, and tennis courts. The next largest is the narrow strip between Fraternity Drive and the Physical Plant, extending to Peavine Creek across an area now used extensively for solid waste disposal. The third extends along and over the railroad and its right-of-way east of the Graduate Student Dormitory, while the existing magnificent climax forest just north of it has been removed. The fourth "natural space" is the quadrangle. The fifth, which is the only one that can be called a natural area, is the ravine below the Graduate Library. But even this designation is grossly enlarged, and the buildings projected for its lower and central portion would occupy most of the existing space.

The next reference is found on page 104 where the same "natural spaces'' for the south campus have been curiously redrawn in different portions, and the quadrangle is now designated as a landscaped space. The section beginning on page 116 on Landscaping indicates the basic conceptual plan will emphasize human use, and the examples given illustrate "how landscape planting and design can enhance and reinforce the future image of the University." No reference is made to the value of natural areas. Even though such areas are designated on pages 116 and 118, and references to them given on the lower part of page 119, they are not only at variance with each other,

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but also differ markedly from prior presentations. Much stress is put in this section on plantings of introduced trees and shrubs and of the use of art and campus graphics, while the use of native trees and shrubs is largely ignored. In the concluding section on Next Steps, no reference is made to the maintenance and preservation of existing natural resources. Thus as the Plan proceeds there is a gradual diminution and ultimately an effective loss of almost all of the natural beauty of the south campus and much of the north campus.

In summary, while the proceeding may seem to labor a point, it does drive home the fact that if we are to keep our irreplaceable natural assets, then positive steps must be taken first to develop adequate management practices for their improvement and preservation, and second, to make the necessary changes in the Master Plan which will insure their continuity through future campus development.

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what THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT MEANS TO EMORY

Our natural environment is a priceless heritage received from past generations. It is an irreplaceable asset and as such provides an element of quality which man cannot create. Thus, we do not have the "right" to destroy. Rather we have the direct responsibility of maintenance and preservation for those generations which follow.

I recently had an opportunity to spend several days on the University of Indiana Campus. From its inception, Indiana has placed great value on its natural environment, so that today, its 30,000 students may for example stroll along paths through near primeval woods, in the heart of the old quadrangle. The attitudes and values which the entire University community places on its natural environment are reflected in these excerpts from the message given each new student, faculty member and visitor who comes to the campus. It portrays what we might want to tell to the Emory community.

"As members of Indiana University, we share a priceless heritage. Our campus is unique and beautiful. It is unique because it preserves areas of forests, maintained in as near natural state as daily use by thousands of us will permit.

Each season reveals different aspects of the beauty of the campus. In the spring it is alive with the beautiful pastel colors of wildflowers and blooming trees. In the fall the hardwoods stage an unrivaled display of brilliant color. During the summer we enjoy the cool shade of the giant beeches, maples and oaks. In the winter the stark branches, sometimes adorned with wet snow, form intricate patterns against the sky.

An increasingly urban America needs the breathing space of natural green areas. The proceeding generations of alumni, faculty, students, and staff have here united in a determined effort to keep intact our natural green quadrangles and to provide for new ones as the campus expands. To cut a tree unnecessarily,lias long been an act of treason against our heritage and the loyalty, love and effort of our predecessors who have preserved it for us.

Our forest trees are your link with the past. The University is your link with the future. Are we so poor that we cannot afford to preserve tells precious heritage? Indeed, are we so rich that we can afford to lose it?

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May you find on the campus, especially in the old quadrangle, the beauty and sanctuary which will inspire you to dream long dreams of future usefulness to society."

What of the economic values? These are very substantial and fall into three categories. First, natural areas are self-maintaining and self-replicating, whereas landscaped areas must be forever managed by man. Thus, by the simple means of keeping an area in its natural state, the high costs of preparation of the site, purchase of herbs, shrubs, and trees, and their maintenance by spraying, trimming, fertilizing and replacing are avoided year after year after year through the decades to come.

The second economic factor arises from the direct and continuing beneficial effects on the micrometeorological environment. A good tree canopy maintains a highly favorable temperature-humidity-air flow relationship, a condition instantly recognized by anyone walking from a sun-drenched side walk or winter wind into the protective recesses of a forest. This same condition reduces the heat load on campus buildings in the summer, and heat loss in the winter, thus measurably reducing the costs of air conditioning and heating.

The third factor is in the beneficial effects of trees and woodlands on air pollution and noise. For example, their shade reduces the photochemical effects of sunlight on smog, while their leaves and branches appreciably filter the particulate matter. With Emory's current high level. of air pollution, coupled with its high density of hospital patients and pedestrian traffic, this factor is of considerable significance.

There are yet other reasons for the development of a quality natural environment which in some respects, are more compelling than those given above. As a great educational institution, Emory has a unique responsibility to establish by precept and example the very best of what society needs as it prepares for the turbulent present and future. the "environmental crisis" is now well recognized as one of the most urgent of man's problems. Many members of the Emory community are deeply concerned and involved with similar environmental problems of our city, state, nation, and world. Should we now look within our own doorstep?

All of these reasons find their ultimate expression in Emory's Charter,, which in essence requires that it inculcate within its constituents a reverence and understanding for our Creator and for all things which He has provided us through the immutable laws of nature.

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A COMPREHENSIVE MASTER PLAN FOR A QUALITY NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

This study could be the catalyst for development of a second Campus Master Plan to be integrated with the present one and directed to the preservation and use of our natural resources. Such a plan is eminently feasible with respect to time and money. Much of this is supplementary to the present Master Plan, and where interactions occur, it calls only for modifications of the environmental features of the present plan as it is developed over the years ahead. The difficult part is the necessary reordering of priorities and value judgements. Some basic suggestions for the development of such a plan follow.

1. The development of a set of realistic objectives and criteria.

2. A detailed inventory of our existing natural resources.

3. The designation of those which we want to keep and/or reestablish.

4. The development of a long range maintenance program, with appropriate priorities, so that over the next few years the identity, quality and integrity of these may be firmly established.

S. The application of these objectives and criteria to each new construction activity on the campus including, in as far as possible, those now in various planning stages. The latter involves particularly an ecological study of their location, and necessary changes in construction practices.

6. An emphasis in the future on the use of native plants and informal landscaping, as a major modification to the landscaping procedures now suggested by the Master Plan.

7. An analysis of the economic aspects of such a plan, with respect to both, cost and benefit.

8. Appropriate involvement of students, faculty, employees, visitors and other members of the community.

9. Abatement of water and air pollution.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A number of people, departments, and agencies have contributed significantly to this study. The Campus Development Committee and its sub-committee on the Campus Environment, Safety & Security, and various segments of the Physical Plant have provided full cooperation and support. The U. S. Soil Conservation Service conducted an extensive study of the soil, resulting in several tables and maps incorporated within a 135 page report. The SCS is now initiating a similar study of the forest stands on the campus. The Georgia Water Quality Control Board provided extensive counseling and laboratory analyses. The Georgia State Health Department, through its office on Air Pollution, provided counseling, equipment, and laboratory assistance. Various kinds of information were provided by Fernbank Science Center, The Atlanta U. S. Weather Bureau, The Fulton County Health Department, The Atlanta Gas Light Company, and The Dekalb County Traffic Engineering Department. A number of faculty and students within the Department of Biology provided counseling and data. We extend our sincere appreciation to each of these, as well as to the many individuals who gave of their time and talent.

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PART II

THE FOUR STUDIES

SOILS VEGETATION WATER AIR

SOILS

Carol Macklin
Jerry Bumgarner

Introduction

A position paper attempting to characterize the ecology oil the Emory University campus or the quality of its environment must include the soils. The land the University owns and builds on consists of soils overlying bedrock of biotite, quartz, and felspar. The derived soils are red and yellow podzols which are acid, low in lime content, and low in soluble salts. Vegetation is dependent upon the soil. The use of land by man for construction can lead to serious abuse of the natural soil resources if due caution is not exercised.

The general objective of this study is to examine the various soils of the Emory campus with regard to their nature, quality, and use. The primary methods include (1) mapping of the soils so as to provide a classification of soil types and an indication of areas of erosion, sedimentation or deposition, and disturbance by man; and (2) a detailed study of soil profiles at specifically chosen sites, to include such determinations as soil horizons, texture, structure, consistence, pH, biological activity, and water holding capacity.

Methods and Procedures

The classification and mapping of the soils of the entire Emory University campus was carried out by Mr. Grover Thomas, Soil Scientist for the Soil Conservation Service office located in Decatur, Georgia. He conducted a soils survey of the campus and prepared a comprehensive map which is submitted along with an interpretive report. The complete report from the Soil Conservation Service is available and includes a description of how the survey was conducted; a detailed legend; detailed prose descriptions of the soil series found, the individual profiles studied, and the mapping units delineated on the map. Also included are interpretive recommendations for non-farm and engineering use of the soils, notes on the formation and classification of soils, and an explanatory glossary.

The more detailed study of individual soil profiles in the field was accomplished by digging soil pits at the following locations:

1. Slope below the President's home and above Candler Lake, Lullwater Estate.

2. Near the environment tower in the Biology Research Area, Lullwater Estate.

3. Wooded area on the slope northeast of the South Fork of Peachtree Creek and northwest of the Veteran's Administration Hospital.

4. Forest just inside the entrance to Lullwater Estate.

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5. Area behind Woodruff Library and beside the Rich Building.

6. Upper slope of the ravine below the Rich Building.

7. Beside the stream in the ravine below the Rich Building.

8. Upper slope of the ravine behind Clifton Court Apartments.

9. Lower slope of the ravine behind Clifton Court Apartments.

10. Area between the Alumni Memorial Building, Alabama Hall, and Cox Hall.

11. Area on the Quadrangle between the Candler Library and the Physics and History Buildings.

The parking lot of the National Communicable Disease Center represents an area completely paved over by man to the functional obliteration of any soil as a supporting medium for vegetation. Of course, no soil pit was dug here.

These soil pits were dug and the profiles studied in the field by Mr. Thomas from the Soil Conservation Service; Sharron Rogers and Carol Macklin, graduate students in Biology; and Greg Piacente and Jerry Bumgarner, undergraduates. Field analysis drew primarily from Mr. Thomas' knowledge and experience with soils. It included determinations such as slope, drainage, erosion, permeability, stoniness, root distribution, evidence of biological activity, horizons and their depths, color, texture, consistence, pH, boundaries, and mineral composition.

Soil samples were taken from characteristic horizons in the soil profile at each of these soil pits for laboratory analysis. In many cases it was felt advisable to take a sample of all Ab horizons combined, in one case to take a sample of combined Ab horizons, and in another of combined IIB horizons. For each horizon thus sampled, determinations of water holding capacity, loss of ignition, and pH of a 1:1 soil and water suspension were made in the laboratory. Details of the procedure for each follow.

Water holding capacity

1. Distilled water was gently added to the undisturbed soil sample in the container in which it was collected. The container was filled completely and the sample was allowed to stand about 15 minutes to become saturated.

2. The wet soil sample was allowed to drain on paper toweling for about 15 minutes.

3. A subsample of this drained soil was allowed to drain further as intact clods for about one hour in a funnel lined. with rapid filter paper and covered, to slow loss of water by evaporation.

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4. Weight of the wet soil thus drained was determined and recorded.

5. The wet, drained soil was oven-dried for 6-8 hours or overnight at 1100C, cooled in a desiccator, and its ovendry weight recorded.

6. The weight loss as water was calculated as the difference between the oven-dry weight and the wet weight, and expressed as a percentage of the wet weight of the soil.

Loss on ignition (modified from Bear 1964)

1. A second subsample of the saturated soil from step 2 of the previous determination was air-dried on filter paper and passed through a 2mm mesh sieve to remove Toots and rocks.

2. The sieved soil was pulverized, placed in a crucible, and oven-dried for 6-8 hours at 110'C.

3. After the soil was cooled in a desiccator, its oven-dry weight was recorded.

4. The oven-dry soil was ashed in a muffle furnace for 6-8 hours at 450'C.

5. It was again cooled in a desiccator and its ash weight recorded.

6. The loss on ignition was calculated as the difference between ash weight and oven-dry weight, and expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight.

pH (modified from Jackson 19500)

1. A third subsample of the saturated soil was oven-dried for 6-8 hours or overnight at 110'C.

2. After it was cooled in a desiccator, its oven-dry weight was recorded.

3. A pH meter with a glass electrode was standardized with a phosphate buffer of pH = 7.0.

4. On the assumption that 1 g of water = 1 ml of water at laboratory room temperatures, a volume in ml of distilled water equal to the oven-dry weight in g was added to the soil gradually with mixing, to produce a 1:1 soil and water suspension.

5. After thorough mixing of the sample, its pH was immediately read with the pH meter and recorded.

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TABLE I

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TABLE I (continued)

* combined

** plaster

The eleven soil pits occurred in the following soils:

The soils of the Emory campus are naturally acid as can be seen by noting that the pH readings found from laboratory analysis of soil samples from all horizons from non-"Urban land" fall below pH = 7.0. Most values lie in the range 5.0 to 6.0. All values agree within the range of error with the values obtained in the field using a colorimetric method. In these natural soils an increase in acidity or a decrease in pH can be expected as one moves from the upper (A) to the lower (B) horizons in any given profile, as a result of the downward movement of clay. In particular, the suffix "t", on the designation

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of a B horizon (such as B2t) indicates the presence of alluvial clay. This condition applies to all primary B horizons except those of the Louisa fine sandy loam at Station 4. This trend is seen in most of the field measurements of pH and several of the laboratory measurements. But, on the other hand, natural forest soils contain horizons of decomposing litter and humus above the A horizon designated 01 and 02 respectively. As it decays, this organic material produces acids which become incorporated into the upper horizons of the soil. This phenomenon may explain some of the observed increases in pH from A to B horizons. Stations 7 and 9 had 01 horizons and Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 had both 01 and 02 horizons.

As opposed to the natural soils just discussed, the pH values of layers of soil material in Urban land were erratic. Some gave readings by the field method that either exceeded the upper limits of the range of detection or were mistrusted by Mr. Thomas because they were inconsistent. Also the only readings in the alkaline range of the pH scale (above 7.0) were obtained from some layers at these stations. In particular, all layers sampled from Station 5 behind the library, registered alkaline in the field and the upper two did so in the lab. The lower layers sampled from Station 11 on the Quadrangle were alkaline as determined in both the field and the lab. Station 10 was the only one on Urban land to show an acid character throughout. In explanation of the observed alkalinity, a lime gradient was expected at Station 5 behind the library because of evidence of the dumping of waste concrete and cement. Layer 4 sampled from Station 11 on the Quadrangle was actually a layer about two inches thick of construction plaster. Its pH registered as 10.2, the highest of all readings, in the lab. It also accounts for the high pH of the layer just below it.

Water holding capacity as measured in the lab is the difference between saturated wet weight of the soil and oven-dry weight as a percentage of the wet weight. In general it ranged from about 20% to as high as 40% of the samples taken. The only observable trend is that the water holding capacity tends to decrease (rather sharply in many cases) from the upper A to the lower B horizons in the natural soils sampled. No such pattern can be seen for the stations in Urban land indicating the disturbance of the land by shifting and mixing of layers.

Through his classification of the soils in the field, Mr. Thomas was able to estimate the available water capacity of those studied. Available water capacity is the amount of moisture in a soil between field capacity and the wilting point or the amount of moisture available to plants. It is not equatable to the water holding capacity measured in the laboratory and thus does not correlate specifically with those data. Gwinnett loams have medium to high available water capacities; Pacolet sandy loam, Madison fine sandy loam, and Cartecay soils, medium; and Louisa fine sandy loam, low. All the natural soil profiles studied in the soil pits have moderate infiltration. Gwinnett loam and Pacolet sandy loam have moderate permeability; Madison fine sandy loam has moderate to moderately rapid permeability; both Louisa fine sandy loam and Cartecay soils are moderately rapid in permeability. Almost all the natural soils are well drained. Exceptions are Cartecay which is poor to moderately well drained, being found on a flood plain with a high ground water level, and Louisa which is exces

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sively drained. The excessive drainage of the Louisa is caused by run-off and low available waterholding capacity.

The run-off of water depends more on slope than on the soil itself. It is moderately rapid to rapid on the Gwinnett with 15-35% slope and on the Pacolet with 15-25% slope. It is medium to moderately rapid on the Pacolet with 10-15% slope. Run-off is rapid on the Madison with 15-30% slope, and slow on the nearly level Cartecay. All of the natural soils studied at these pits except the flood plain Cartecay soils have severe hazards of erosion when they are left exposed and unprotected by vegetation cover. The Gwinnett loams (Stations 1, 8, and 9) are contributing sediments to their respective watersheds. Shallow gullies were observed at Station 3 (Madison) but are not presently contributing sediment.

The soil material from Urban land was too disturbed even for Mr. Thomas to make any kind of estimate as to available water capacity, permeability, drainage, run-off, infiltration, and erosion.

The determinations of loss on ignition were run in the laboratory in order to obtain some index of the organic matter content in the soils sampled. According to Bear (1964) a more accurate index of organic matter content is obtained when a correction factor proportional to the amount of clay in the sample is subtracted from the loss on ignition. Since no laboratory measurements for clay content were made, this correction could not be applied in this case. Mr. Thomas also advised that the mica content of the soil affects the loss of ignition. All soils examined excepting layers 2 and 4 from Station 11 (Quadrangle) contained some mica flakes. They were common in several.. Thus the presence of mica has probably influenced most of the laboratory data for loss on ignition. The presence of clay should affect mostly the values for those horizons designated Bt.

Nevertheless., using the laboratory data for loss on ignition as a rough index of organic matter content, one can see their significance when natural soils are compared with Urban land. Most values for samples from Urban land are low and none greater than 5.5%, whereas values for natural soils are higher in general and some greater than 10%. These values do correspond to the observed presence of soil organisms and evidence of their activity, such as worm casts, in the natural soils studied. No evidence of biological activity was observed in the field at stations on Urban land. The absence of soil organisms again attests to the disturbed nature of this soil material. It may be noted that among the natural soils there is a trend of decrease in organic content, as estimated from loss on ignition, from the upper (A) to the lower (B) horizons. This may easily be accounted for by the presence of a litter layer above the A horizon of all natural soils studied and its absence on Urban land. Here the humus is produced which becomes the organic matter of the soil as it is mixed with the horizons below. The absence of any pattern in the values from stations on Urban land again points to mixing and disturbance.

According to Mr. Thomas' estimate all the natural soils studied have low natural fertilities. Gwinnett loam, Pacolet sandy loam, and Louisa fine sandy loam are estimated to have medium organic matter

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content in the A horizons and low in the B horizons. Cartecay soils have medium organic matter content. Madison fine sandy loam has medium organic matter in the A1 and A2 horizons, and low in the Ap and B. No estimates of natural fertility or organic matter content were possible for stations on Urban land.

Although no direct measurements for compaction were made in the laboratory, much can be inferred from Mr. Thomas' estimations of structure and consistence of the soil. All natural soils had some classifiable structure in their A and B horizons. Most were also quite friable, breaking up on application of slight pressure. But soil material from Urban land presents a different picture. The buried horizons at Station 5 behind the library were similar to natural soils, but the Ap horizon was completely structureless. It covers the natural soil profile. At Station 10 in front of the Post Office at the Alumni Memorial Building all layers were structureless, compacted, and firm. Some were very difficult to break up even with a pick. The same is true for all layers at Station 11 on the Quadrangle.

Discussion

One of the objectives given in the introduction of this report is to determine where the soils which can be called "natural soils" are present. As noted in the Master Plan, the campus is conveniently divided into two halves, one south of the Seaboard Airline railroad tracks and west of Clifton Road and the other north of the railroad tracks and east of Clifton Road. This division is convenient because most of what is thought of as the campus proper--the Academic buildings centering around the Quadrangle, the Emory Health Services including the Hospital and Medical School, the Dental School and the Communicable Disease Center--is located in the south-west section. The North-east section, on the other hand, is primarily undeveloped except for the Yerkes Primate Center, the President's home, and the Veteran's Administration Hospital. This division is also convenient in relation to the quality of the campus soils: 70.3% of the total land area containing Urban type soils is in the south-west section, while 75.2% of the land area containing relatively undisturbed natural soils is in the north-east section. Thus these boundaries practically divide the Emory campus into disturbed and undisturbed sectors.

North-East Section (North Campus)

As was noted before, the Soil Conservation Service report and the laboratory data provide a good description of the soils on the various parts of the campus, especially in areas where soil pits were dug and the individual soil profiles studied. However, several points should be repeated here.

One of the main areas in the north-east sector is., of course, Lullwater Estate. This area., with the Candler Lake and its grassy tree-shaded hills, has become a sort of show place of Emory's "natural beauty." Students and visitors flock there to relax, play and generally enjoy having a pleasant place where they can be outdoors.

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In addition, the Biology Department preserve and research area, as well as the radiation research field, are located in the southeastern corner of the estate. Because of all these activities, a large amount of labor and money is expended to maintain this area in its present state.

Within the boundaries of Lullwater Estate most of the soils north of the entrance road and north of the lake are of the Gwinnett loam type, varying only in the per cent slope. These soils are generally acid (ph 5.6 and 5.9 at Station 1). As can be seen from Table I, the organic matter content is medium in the A horizon and low in the D horizon. This, coupled with the fact that the ground layer is kept planted in grass and no litter layer is allowed to accumulate, makes this area low in natural fertility. Because of this, commercial fertilizers must be added to the soil to maintain the vegetation.

The hazard of erosion is severe with Gwinnett loam, especially on the 15 to 35 per cent slopes of most of this area. Some areas of active erosion were observed in road banks and road ditches in the area. The effect of this erosion is especially noticeable in the small creek feeding into the southwest corner of the Candler Lake. The small stone settling pool through which this creek is fed fills with sediment very quickly and must often be manually cleared at some expense and labor. Erosional sediments which pass through the pool or are picked up downstream from it are in fact gradually building up a large delta which extends into the lake. Other areas, including the slope between the president's home and the lake, where Station 1 is located, are contributing sediments directly into Candler Lake. This is one of the major factors which keeps Candler Lake in a perennially silted, cloudy and very unsightly state.

It can be concluded then that, although this area of Gwinnett loam can be classified as a natural rather undisturbed soil, it is already showing signs of stress from the heavy traffic by people using the area (mainly for recreational purposes), and from the removal of a balanced vegetative cover which would be allowed to cycle materials and nutrients through the soil. Maintaining this soil in the context in which it is now used must be a careful, and probably expensive, undertaking.

The wooded area immediately adjacent to the north side of the entrance road near the entrance of the Lullwater Estate and the wooded areas south of the entrance road, south of the lake and west of the Veteran's Administration Hospital, are comprised mainly of Louisa or Madison fine sandy loam. Both types of soil are composed of fine sandy loam, although the Madison soils are strongly acid to neutral. Correlated strongly to the natural forest cover of these areas is the fact that organic content is medium and biological activity--worms, soil microorganisms, and root growth--is good through the B horizon in most areas. Although the hazard of erosion is moderate to severe if the soils are left bare, the vegetative cover at present is preventing erosion and no areas of active water erosion were observed. As long as those soils continue to be subjected to only minimal stress, they will probably remain relatively undisturbed and require little maintenance expenditures.

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There are, however., several areas in the Lullwater Estate which exhibit serious soil difficulties. In the southeastern area of the Estate, between the Seaboard Airline Railway tracks and the biology preserve, lies such an area. This area, which consists mainly of Madison sandy loam, again has a severe hazard of erosion if left bare of vegetation. Here, unlike the Madison soil areas just discussed, the vegetation has been removed for the construction of a small dirt road. Because of this, severe water erosion is taking place which is contributing sediment to the streams in the area, which in turn feed into the biology research pond and then into the Candler Lake. This situation presents an ugly scar in this normally beautiful natural area.

The south fork of Peachtree Creek runs completely across the northern edge of the Emory campus from the east border of the campus just below the Veteran's Administration Hospital to the west border north of Wesley Woods. Cartecay soils are found in a narrow zone along both banks of the creek. These soils are typical of nearly level flood plains of streams in this area and are normal for a stream of this size. On the Lullwater Estate this zone of Cartecay soils widens considerably and underlies the entire meadow area between the north edge of Candler Lake and the south fork of Peachtree Creek. Although this area is flooded several times a year, under natural conditions the soils in this meadow floodplain would not present a problem since the soils normally support enough vegetation to prevent erosion.

However, the increased use of this meadow by pedestrians, motorcyclists and others as a natural playground has in several places, especially along the paths, caused compaction of the soil and loss of vegetative and biological activity. These bare soils are susceptible to water erosion during flooding and may in the near future become a serious soil maintenance problem.

The remainder of the north-east section of the campus, other than the Lullwater Estate, is comprised mainly of steep wooded slopes facing Peachtree Creek. The soils in these areas are comprised mainly of Madison fine sandy loam, Madison sandy clay loam, Louisa fine sandy loam, Musella sandy clay loam, Pacolet sandy loam and Gwinnett loam. These soils are generally acid and contain vegetation naturally adapted to acid soils. The vegetative cover contributes a litter layer which provides the soils with a medium organic matter content. All of these soils are described individually in the Soil Conservation Service report and the laboratory data from Stations 3, 8, and 9 are from Madison fine sandy loam and Gwinnett loam in this area.

On all of these soils the hazard of erosion is moderate to severe due to the steep slopes. If the vegetative cover is removed by traffic, construction, or dumping, or if the soils are otherwise left bare, erosion becomes a serious problem. This fact is attested to by the areas of active erosion which were observed in the following locations: northwest of the Sheraton Emory Inn in Gwinnett loam (422C2); southeast of the Yerkes Primate Center in Gwinnett loam (422D2); between Peachtree Creek and Biltmore Drive north of Wesley Woods in Madison fine sandy loam (430C2 and 430E2); approximately 200 yards west of the Veteran's Administration Hospital in Madison fine sandy loam (430E2); west of the Clifton Court Apartments and north of

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Clifton Road in Madison sandy-clay loam (467E3); and on both sides of Houston Mill Road north of Peachtree Creek in Musella stony loam (436E1). These approximate locations and numerical codes for soil type may be used to locate areas of erosion more exactly on the aerial photography soil maps. Much of this erosion is contributing sediment directly to the watershed.

The areas mentioned thus far have been primarily natural soils even though many of them exhibit some degree of disturbance, usually by erosion, compaction, or loss of natural fertility. However, 23.2% of all the land included within the boundaries of the northeast section of the campus contain soils which belong to the seriously disturbed, or "Urban soils" classification. Urban soils are associated with construction developments such as streets, houses, parking lots, and business residences. In these areas the normal soil horizons have been so thoroughly mixed as to be completely unrecognizable, although in a few areas there is enough soil profile left to identify the soil as Urban land-Cecil complex or Urban land and Pacolet soils.

The worst degree of disturbance, the Urban land, is associated mainly with the larger building complexes in the north-east section. These include the Yerkes Primate Center, the Sheraton Emory Inn and the Clifton Court Apartments, the residential and apartment area on the east side of Houston Mill Road west of the Lullwater Estate, and Wesley Woods and the dump just north of it. The Urban-land-Cecil complex and the Urban land and Pacolet soil areas occur along the north side of Clifton Road between the entrance road to Lullwater Estate and the Sheraton Emory Inn.

These extremely disturbed soils are altered biologically and chemically as well as Physically. The parameters which were measured in the laboratory, such as PH, water holding capacity and organic matter content, are extremely erratic. Biological activity, such as the activity of worms and microorganisms and root penetration, is severely restricted or non-existent. A more extensive description of these soil types and their implications is found in the section on disturbed soils in the south-west section of campus.

South-West Section (South Campus)

Of the land on the Emory campus south of the Seaboard Airline Railway tracks and west of Clifton Road, only 26.1% contains soils that are not seriously disturbed (that is, non-Urban soils). These soils are contained in four small parcels of land: the area west of Clifton Road and south of the railroad tracks, around the old Post Office; the ravine between the Quadrangle and Glenn Memorial Church; the north slope of the small hill immediately south of Gilbert and Thomas Halls; and the area surrounding and southwest of the athletic field on Peavine Creek.

The ravine beside Glenn Memorial contains two types of soils: Pacolet sandy loam in the major portion of the ravine, and Cartecay soil at the bottom of the ravine along the banks of the small stream. The Pacolet sandy loam, being found under a forest canopy in this ravine, has a litter layer of 2 to 6 centimeters. The A horizon is

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composed of sandy loam with medium infiltration. However, the B horizon, which begins at 15 cm depth, is mostly clay and has very poor infiltration. Because of this and the steepness of the sides of the ravine (15 to 25% slopes), runoff in this area is moderately rapid to rapid, creating a severe erosion hazard if the vegetative cover is removed. For this reason the Pacolet soils in the ravine are rated severe for all non-farm use by the Soil Conservation Service.

The Cartecay soils in the bottom of the ravine are composed of a great deal of sandy loam and silt which has been deposited by the stream, especially at the lower end of the ravine. Although root growth extends through the A horizon, no B horizon is present. This may be due to earlier erosion. The water table is very high in these soils (soils below 49 cm were quite wet even though there had been no rain in some time) and the area is subject to flooding. For this reason, the area is again rated severe for all non-farm use.

The hill near Gilbert Hall, the area around the old Post Office, and most of the area around the athletic field are all Madison fine sandy loam similar to that described above. The athletic field is also subject to flooding by Peavine Creek and some areas of active erosion were observed along the roadway and road ditches leading to the athletic field.

By far the majority of this area of the campus, however, is composed of urban soils. These soils, as mentioned before, have been thoroughly mixed and altered. At Station 5, on the southwest side of the Woodruff Library, a brown sandy clay overfill 26 centimeters in depth was found. Beneath this fill was found a profile of Louisburg sandy brown which had a weak fine and medium granular structure in the tipper layers and a weak angular blocky structure in the lower layers. At Station 11, on the Quadrangle, the soil was completely structureless and very hard and dry. Old nails, pipe couplings and other pieces of metal, and pieces of cement and charcoal were found scattered throughout the soil. At a depth of 41 centimeters a layer of white plaster 6 centimeters thick was discovered. An indurated hardpan layer 1 to 2 millimeters thick had formed immediately below the plaster and was completely blocking all upward movement of water through the soil. The soil below this layer contained some moisture, but all soil above it was completely dry.

Perhaps the most compacted area studied. is at Station 10 between Alabama Hall and the Alumni Memorial Building. The soil at this station was very firm and compact as well as structureless; it was very difficult to dig through even with a heavy pick. This area has been excavated previously to lay electrical conduit. The Master Plan notes that "there is a commendable University policy that all wires be placed underground as new building necessitates change in service...` and "a policy has been established whereby Emory University installs underground conduit when it wishes telephone wires placed underground." These policies are meant to eliminate "unsightly overhead wires." Unfortunately, the areas which are excavated and then refilled are very susceptible to severe compaction and loss of structure, as the observations at Station 10 have clearly shown. This is much more serious than having to use overhead wires. Charles Kellogg has pointed out

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that once soil structure is lost, "in many cases it may take 10 years of very careful treatment to recover a structure in which plants can grow well."

The chemical structure as well as the physical structure of the Urban soils has also been severely altered. Most of the relatively undisturbed natural soils on campus are neutral to strongly acid; the vegetative cover has adapted to these acid soils. The pH's of the Urban soil, on the other hand, are highly erratic, and many are alkaline. The fill at Station 5 was found in the laboratory to be strongly alkaline (7.9), while what remained of the buried natural soil was very strongly acid (pH 4.8 in the B2b horizon). Construction lime and cement dumped in the area during the construction of the library is very likely the cause of the unexpected alkalinity of the fill layer. As the stream flowing by the library cuts through the fill, thick layers of discarded concrete can be seen all along its banks. The abrupt change in pH in this area places a great deal of stress on the dominant vegetation; as the pH of the lower layers becomes more alkaline, the plants, which are adapted to an acid soil, are dying in large numbers.

Unlike Station 5, the soil at Station 10 was very strongly acid (pH 4.5 to 4.8). Such high acidity is also very detrimental to life in the soil. At a pH as low as those found here very few of the normal soil bacteria can exist. Station 11 exhibited the most erratic pH distribution of all stations tested. The upper two layers were both acidic (pH 6.3 and 6.6). The plaster layer had a pH of 10.2 and apparently influenced the layers beneath it, all of which were strongly alkaline.

These soils are also very disturbed biologically. The organic matter content, both as shown in the laboratory data and as estimated by the Soil Conservation Service, is very low--lower than that of any other soils on campus. This fact is due to several factors. The removal of the normal vegetative cover prevents the accumulation of any kind of litter layer, thus severely restricting the normal input of organic matter into the soils. No live soil organisms or evidence of recent activities of soil organisms was observed at any of the three stations on Urban land; this curtails the major part of the normal cycling of the soil and any organic matter present.

From these observations, it can be seen that Urban soils are radically different from normal healthy soils. In terms of a continuum they are the worst soils on the Emory campus; in places, these soils are literally "dead.." Furthermore, they represent a liability to the University esthetically, physically, and financially. Because of the extremely poor condition of the soil, vegetative cover, even grass, is extremely difficult to introduce and maintain in many areas. As a result, large streams of rushing water, red with soil sediments, may be observed everywhere on this part of the campus during any heavy rainstorm. This erosion creates unsightly gullies and only increases difficulty with vegetation. Because of the compaction of the soil, it must be periodically perforated so that air and water may move downward through the soil. It would be much cheaper if earthworms could accomplish this.

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To remedy the situations described above is a long and costly process. Just as important, however, is to insure that the same processes do not reoccur on the remaining natural soils of the University. This is not to say that new buildings and roads should not be built, or new electrical wiring and sewers should not be laid. A university such as Emory must change and expand as conditions necessitate it. It is the way in which such expansion has been achieved in the past which must be changed. Indiscriminate excavating, grading and filling which destroy the structure of large areas of soil must be eliminated in favor of a careful and thorough soil study at the site of each new building in order to determine what will disturb as little of the surrounding soil as possible. The accidental or intentional dumping of lime, cement, and toxic construction substances, such as is apparent around the Woodruff Library and on the Quadrangle, should not be allowed by the Administration of the University. Certainly, some soils must be disturbed as expansion continues. But the introduction of informed, carefully planned procedures to protect as much soil as possible and to recover disturbed soils is something which every member of the University community should expect and demand.

Several new building projects presented in the Master Plan for the near future will directly affect the quality of the remaining natural areas on the south-west section of the Emory campus. These projections should be carefully examined so that a soil condition similar to that presently around the new Woodruff Library will not be created again.

The new Fine Arts Center will extend completely across the ravine north of Glenn Memorial Church; its associated parking lot will cover the lower end of the ravine. This project will probably entail extensive grading and filling of this area--possibly even complete filling of the ravine. Two major problems must be overcome when the Fine Arts Center is built. As mentioned before, the Pacolet sandy loam on the slopes of the ravine present a serious hazard of erosion if the slopes are bared of vegetation, as will undoubtedly be the case during construction. A great deal of erosion and destruction of surrounding vegetation could very easily occur. The water table in the Cartecay soils in the bottom of the ravine is extremely high, sometimes only a few inches below the surface. Grading or filling in this area could extensively alter the water table of the entire area. Included in this is the possibility of trouble with water seepage or flooding in any building built in this part of the ravine.

The slope in front of the present Administration Building, where the new Administration and Humanities Extension and parking lot are to be built, is already classified as Urban land. Of course, this problem could be seriously increased. The steep slope of this area creates a serious hazard of erosion during construction.

Both the new Science Center and the new Post Office and Shopping Center will be built on Madison fine sandy loam. The Science Center will be located on the now pine-covered slope above Gilbert Hall; the Post Office and Shopping Center, and parking lot, will be built behind the old Post Office at the corner of Clifton Road and Haygood Drive. Because of the steep slope and rapid water runoff, the hazard of erosion is again extreme; so much so, in fact, that the Soil Conser-

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vation Service rates these two areas as severe for all non-farm uses.

As can be seen from these examples, a great many problems related to the soil will be met during the expansion of the University which will endanger the remaining natural soils on this part of the campus. The outcome should not be the same as it has often been in the past -- the destruction of natural soils through inadequate planning and a low quality rebuilding of soils on necessarily disturbed areas.

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VEGETATION

Sharron Rogers
Greg Piacente

INTRODUCTION

In an ecological study such as this report on the quality of the Emory University environment, where the interactions of the various environmental parameters become of utmost importance, a careful look must be taken at the condition of the vegetation in the area. It is here that the effects of these interactions will be manifest. Not only does man alter the vegetation cover because of his ever increasing need for physical space, but also his culture which results in contamination of water, air, and soil has a profound effect on the health of the natural vegetation. It is hoped that this report, by combining a study of the condition of the vegetation on campus at the present time with information from the University archives and from the Comprehensive Campus. Master Plan, will contribute to an understanding of the quality of the present vegetational cover and to recommendations for future management.

One of the major summary statements in the Master Plan states that "much of the charm of the Emory Campus is due to its beautiful natural setting among streams, lakes, wooded hills and ravines. A major planning policy is to maintain as much of this natural beauty as is consistent with the expansion program." The word "charm" here is probably not strong enough. Perhaps "major assets" would be better, because these natural areas provide not only future financial assets to the campus, but contribute much to the physical and emotional well being of all the individuals using this area. The tree cover is an important modifying factor in terms of temperature and humidity, and is significant in controlling air pollution, a critical problem for the campus with its proximity to metropolitan Atlanta. These physical influences are important, but one must not overlook the needs of the student to study and to relax in an environment with a minimum of distracting influences. The importance of the Lullwater Estate and other natural wood-lands to the students and faculty of Emory is almost beyond value.

The general objectives of this study are to define and determine the quality of the vegetation cover on the Emory campus; to see what areas might be considered natural and to determine their extent and health. A further objective is to find to what extent man has intervened in these disturbed and unnatural areas and to see how successful his controls have been. In order to achieve these objectives certain specific steps were taken. The first was to develop a comprehensive and rather detailed map of the vegetation existing on the campus. Criteria for evaluation included, first, the obvious division between natural areas and artificially maintained ones, e.g., landscaped and paved. The natural areas were further divided into these groupings: (1) climax oak-hickory-pine association, (2) mixed hardwood-pine, (3) pine, and (4) grass and shrub. Unnatural areas were distinguished only as to whether they had a vegetational cover or not, e.g. grassed area or a parking

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lot or building. Areas where no tree canopy and no vegetation occurred were specifically noted. These include: paved, graveled, and bare soils as well as lawn areas. Note was also made of landfill and graded areas. Here more especially because of the effects such radically disturbed soils have on vegetation establishment and maintenance. Particular reference is made to three areas on the campus the Quadrangle, the area between the Alumni Memorial Building and Cox Hall, and the Woodruff Library for Advanced Studies.

Methods and Procedures

In order to insure a definitive and quantitative description of the vegetation on campus, the following plan was carried out. A series of nine stations was located throughout the campus. Criteria for site selection included: relative condition of natural vegetation, suspected compaction of soil, and thus ultimately the amount of human disturbance to the natural, self-perpetuating soil and vegetation system. An extensive soil and vegetation analysis of these areas was made. A report on the findings of the soil conditions is included in another portion of this paper, but the high degree to which these features interact is noted here.

The stations established on areas that have a natural or near natural self-replicating forest cover include:

Station B - an oak-hickory-pine association in the Biology Research Area of Lullwater Estate near the environment tower;

Station C - a mature oak-hickory-beech forest northwest of the Veterans' Administration Hospital;

Station D - a section of the forest at the entrance to Lullwater Estate just off Clifton Road;

Station E - the ravine between the Rich Building and the Administration Building

Station F - a mature beech cove behind Clifton Court Apartments and the Emory Sheraton Inn;

Station A - an area located on the lawn of the President's home at Lullwater on the grassed hillside facing Candler Lake. This area has a natural tree canopy, but the understory is now completely altered by .man and is thus not self-perpetuating.

The remaining three stations, established on areas where there is a high density of human use, are:

Station G - The Quadrangle;

Station H - The triangle between the AMB and Cox Hall;

Station I - The ravine around the new Woodruff Library for Advanced Studies.

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Vegetation in these areas is limited to a few remaining trees along with planted trees, shrubs, and grass with extensive areas of bare mineral soil resulting from pedestrian traffic and erosion. Trampling of the vegetation has resulted in significant areas of exposed ground and severe soil compaction.

The vegetation analysis at Stations A through F was done by the transect method. Two fifty meter transects, two meters wide, were laid out at each site, i.e., 200 square meters at each station. Record was made of each individual woody plant, its canopy rank, diameter at breast height (DBH), and position along the transect. From this information a series of calculations was made to determine the density, dominance, frequency, and consequently relative importance of each species at each station. Some variations from the transect method were used on the more unnatural areas and will be explained where appropriate.

The following equations were used for these calculations:

Density
	Relative density =	total no. of individuals of species
		area of transect ( 200 m2)
	% density =	relative density of species	X 100
		S relative density of all species
Frequency
	Relative frequency =	No. of units in which species occurred
		Total no. of units measured
	% frequency =	relative freq. of species	X100
		S rel. freq. of all species
Dominance
	Relative dominance =	total basal area for species
		area of transect
	% dominance =	rel. dominance of species	X 100
		S rel. dom. of all species
Relative Importance Value
	I. V. =	% density + % frequency + % dominance

Stations G, H, and I were studied using different procedures in order to best interpret man's impact on these areas. Procedures for these analyses will be enumerated with the results in the following section.

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Results and Discussion

A natural self-perpetuating forest system is composed of basically three ranks of vegetation. The lowest is the seedling stage, composed of all tree and shrub seedlings and herbaceous plants. The middle layer is composed of all shrubs and tree species between 3 and 10 centimeters DBH [Diameter at Breast Height]. Individuals larger than 10 cm. DBH are considered to be in the canopy layer. One of the essential requirements for a self-perpetuating forest is the maintenance of all three of these levels. In some cases, often a result of man's management or intervention, the middle layer or subcanopy may be removed. This will eliminate new replacements to the canopy for a time. If left alone, however, seedlings will develop to replace this strata.

With respect to these three ranks of vegetation, it is clear that two requirements must be met if the first is to be self-perpetuating. These are (1) a significant diversity of species, and (2) a smooth ageclass distribution throughout the three layers.

Data for Stations A through F are shown in Tables I to VI. The community data analysis is by frequency, density, dominance, and relative importance for the species found in the two 100M2 transects, and the distribution of these species is shown for the canopy, subcanopy, and seedling layers. All areas measured show from fifteen to nineteen species per transect except Station E, which has a somewhat more diverse species composition. An explanation for this will be offered when a more detailed description of this area is attempted later in this discussion.

The seedling class contributes by far the largest number of individuals. It is interesting to note that Station A on the lawn of the President's home has by far the fewest number of individuals at the seedling level. This area is mowed several times a year by the grounds keepers; thus, only first year seedlings or those close to the trunks of the canopy trees are found. In contrast to this, very large numbers of seedlings were found at Stations C and D, areas where the subcanopy is not present or has been removed. This is probably due to the increased light penetration and general reduction in competition. It will ultimately result in the replacement of the subcanopy if left alone.

The age-class distributions provide a measure of the health of the system. The total absence or obvious reduction in the number of individuals in a certain size class will yield important information as to the quality of that association. The best areas will have very smooth age-class distribution curves. In a normal situation the numbers of individuals per class should decrease from the smallest seedling class to the largest canopy class. This is in direct proportion to the mortality curves and to spatial crowding with increased size and age.

In an attempt to correlate some of these preceding factors, a look at each of the study areas in terms of their relative natural condition may yield significant information. Maps are included which show the relative areas of natural versus unnatural or absent vegetation and which classify the natural areas by their respective components.

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Station A: Lawn, President's home. Open canopy, mixed pine, hardwood; no subcanopy, a few shrubs; few first year seedlings, mainly destroyed or damaged by infrequent mowing, some evidence of erosion.

Station B: Biology Research Area, Lullwater Estate. Rather open canopy; dominant pine, tulip poplar with extensive subcanopy and seedling substrata. Significant amounts of poison ivy and honeysuckle plus evidence of considerable past surface erosion.

Station C: Northwest of Veterans' Administration Hospital. Mature oak, hickory, tulip poplar assoc., closed canopy, subcanopy and seedlings moderate in number but evenly distributed, many herbaceous wild flowers. Poison ivy, honeysuckle present only at sites of rare canopy breaks.

Station D: North of entrance road, Lullwater Estate. Old oak forest, approximately 200+ years, canopy closed, reported that Candlers cleared understory to improve view and planted sweetshrub, azalea, and rhododendron, deep organic material, extensive seedling layer, only occasional poison ivy.

Station E: Ravine between Rich Building and Administration Building. Old oak forest, approximately 200+ years old, canopy closed except several recent tree deaths, extensive beech understory, rhododendron and azaleas introduced, some ornamental species probably escaped from adjacent landscaped areas. English ivy has been introduced for control at ground level. Extensive evaluation later in paper.

Station F: Cove behind Clifton Court Apartments. Mature beech, hickory assoc. Steep slope prohibits usefulness for building but allows influx of damaging materials from above, many wild flowers, closed canopy, very little evidence of disturbance.

It is important here to note that while these areas may vary somewhat as to their condition at the present time, each is fully capable of regeneration of any weak segments if left alone for some time.

The discussion thus far has dealt only with the natural areas of the campus. What of the areas which man has under his control, which are extensive in the southern part of the campus? A careful look was taken at two major man-contr